Education for John Milton had a lofty, dual objective--a public objective:
To "fit a man to perform justly, skillfully and magnanimously all the offices both private and public, of peace and war."
John Milton, "Of Education"
--And a more lofty, spiritual objective:
"The end then of learning is to repair the ruins of our first parents by regaining to know God aright, and out of that knowledge, to love him, to imitate him, to be like him, as we may the nearest by possessing our souls of true virtue, which being united to the heavenly grace of faith makes up the highest perfection."
John Milton, Paradise Lost
Introduction:
My interest in andragogy and adult education comes primarily from my activities as founder of The School of Athens. However, I was also involved in adult education in my previous career(s): I had a faculty appointment at Duke University Medical Center for my didactic classroom, hospital and bedside clinical instructing of PA and MD students.
Before that I taught Developmental Algebra / Algebra 1 at Central Piedmont Community College, Charlotte, NC. During this time, I created a new course called "Math Anxiety Reduction." I wrote the curriculum and formally presented it to the Curriculum Committee. It was accepted and listed among the courses in the Course Catalog. I taught the course; and I was twice nominated for CPCC's "Innovator of the Year" award.
While still working at Duke Hospital Medicine and before concluding my clinical and teaching activities there, I enrolled in Analytical Trigonometry--and Calculus 1 and Calculus 2 for college credit. Sitting in a classroom with 16 to 18 year olds, at my age, is not for the faint of heart. But I gained valuable insight into how adults learn differently from college-aged students. I also observed how instructors teach college-aged students differently than they teach adults. Since then, I've completed Calculus 3 and Differential Equations. I am presently studying Linear Algebra.
Additionally, over the decades and beyond my formal college education, I've completed several hundred college-level courses--by in-person classroom, by group Zoom, online and at home by DVD format. Examples include: in-person classes and seminars offered by UNC-CH Program in Public Humanities, DVD courses by The Teaching Company, and Yale Online Courses. I have completed every online course offered by Hillsdale College (44 different courses)
Intellectually Gifted Adults:
Peripherally, I am also interested in the science and practice of educating intellectually gifted adults. As (I'm) a Life Member of American Mensa, a member of British Mensa, Brightspace and of Colloquy, I've reflected on the way that I've directed my own continuous, lifelong learning over my lifetime; and I've observed the way that other intellectually gifted adults learn over their lifetime spectrum.
In a study the "Mensa Foundation Study of Unmet Needs Among Highly Intelligent Individuals:," (2024) which included 3,443 participants across 5 age groups (64% were Mensa members); "the highest rated unmet needs were for mentors in both academics and career." 1
In my opinion, it would have been also interesting to know, of all 3,443 participants, how many regarded themselves as successful, happy and satisfied etc. (The survey administrators will say, of course, that such was not within the purview of this study.)
As a participant, it was frustrating that there was no provision for me to indicate that I regarded myself as successful by my own standards, happy, well-adjusted and satisfied--not as a victim--in spite of (my) having overcome significant obstacles, of which "unmet needs" fails woefully in describing my lived experiences and realities.
It seems the methodology was such that the survey was self-selecting for highly intelligent persons who identify as having "unmet needs," and which therefore may be some participants' reason for (his/her) being underachieving, unsuccessful and unhappy.
A Few Words on Giftedness:
Yes, there are other types of giftedness besides intellectual giftedness, such as athletic giftedness, musical giftedness or emotional intelligence.
Another example of giftedness is intuition, which is not considered by all scholars to be an aspect of intellectual giftedness only; but it is an aspect of cognition.
Intuition has been an aspect of my intellectual giftedness since as a toddler. My intuition was necessarily honed because it became my primary survival mechanism. Based on my lived experience--same as is true for my intellectual giftedness--being intuitively gifted can be burdensome, especially to a child who "knows things," for example about his parents which are frightening and about which a child should not have to know.
Introduction to The School of Athens:
The School of Athens is a private, independent, unaffiliated, nonprofit 501(c)3 adult academy which provides intellectual activities and social fellowship of educational value. See Mission and Vision Statements: https://www.theschoolofathens.net
The School of Athens is generally engaged in social and intellectual activities of educational value, including the pursuit of literature, poetry, history, philosophy, civics, political science, art, music, mathematics, science, rhetorical skills and colloquy, in the classical tradition.
Our name: The School of Athens is inspired by Raphael's eponymous painting of 1510 which depicts significant philosophers and mathematicians of classical antiquity. These great minds are the inspiration behind The School of Athens--both of Raphael's and of ours.
The School of Athens is based on the ideal of the intrinsic value of learning for its own sake.
I believe that a well-educated person is one that is able to, wants to, and is expected to contribute to society and culture--and not just to the economy.
The School of Athens is committed to the exploration of the most noble ideas, artistic and intellectual accomplishments of mankind, employing the highest standards of colloquy and group decorum.
The School of Athens is also keen to employ understanding and insights of andragogy, as are relevant. We are also keen to make observations; we are open to doing research, and perhaps contribute some of our own understanding and insights to the study of andragogy.
The School of Athens proactively seeks younger adults as participants, instructors and collaborators--one reason is because lifelong learning should start early, not after one has retired. Another reason is that the different age groups have much to benefit from each other.
The School of Athens was launched in March 2023 with its inaugural course:
"Ekphrastic Poetry."
Andragogy
Andragogy is "the science and practice of adult learning." and is in contrast to pedagogy, which is the science and practice of child learning.
The distinction of andragogy from pedagogy encapsulates the most important insight of andragogy.
Malcolm S. Knowles was an American educator and popularized the use of the word andragogy to describe adult education.
Knowles developed his theory, which is a set of 5 assumptions, from which he derived the hypothesis that adults learn uniquely differently from children. This insight is an important contribution to the various extant educational theories and understandings of how people learn. 2
The History and Development of Andragogy
The German scholar Alexander Kapp., in describing Plato's theory of education, first used the term andragogy in his 1833 book entitled Platon's Erziehungslehre, als Pädagogik für die Einzelnen und als Staatspädagogik. Oder dessen praktische Philosophie. which is translated to: Plato's educational theory, as pedagogy for the individual and as state pedagogy . Or its Practical Philosophy 3 , 7
The term was not employed again until American educators Eduard Lindeman and Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy wrote in 1924 that "adult education require special teachers, methods, and philosophy," describing this special understanding as andragogy.
Eduard Lindeman (1885-1953), a philosopher of American education was referred to as ‘the spiritual father of andragogy’; although he never developed an independent theory of andragogy. 4
However it was an American education professor, Malcolm S. Knowles, influenced by Lindeman, who, starting in the 1950s, developed the theory of modern andragogy. 5
This essay includes my insight that one's motivations for learning and for seeking education vary according to one's changing social, psychological, financial means / needs, and career-status expectations, across their lifespan spectrum. In other words, beyond Knowles et al insight that adults learn uniquely differently than children do, (andragogy and pedagogy respectively) is my insight that additionally, over an adult's lifespan spectrum, his/her learning and educational needs and motivations vary.
Along the spectrum of adult learners, there are age group differences, based on one's needs at different stages of life. For example younger, employed adults may tend to be interested in learning a new skill, idea, theory or philosophy only if it directly contributes to their perceived career advancement. Many wouldn't even consider taking a class in a subject entirely unrelated to their "major" or "minor" or career or vocation.
Definition of Adult
Next, we must stop and consider: What is the definition of adult? We acknowledge that the definition of adult or adulthood is variable and is based on legal definitions, cultural and psycho-social considerations.
The age of majority is typically 18 years old in most countries; but it varies from 9 to 21 years old. worldpopulationreview.com
The Oxford English Dictionary defines adulthood as "the state or condition of being fully grown or mature." This definition is circular and not very helpful. This definition connotes an "older adult" of at least 50 years old or more; but it doesn't speak to their psychological and social independence.
The definition of adult is nuanced, overlapping, conditional and complex. Legally, an .adult is "a person who has attained the age of majority and is therefore regarded as independent, responsible and self-sufficient." But of course, not every adult who has reached the age of majority is independent, responsible and/or self-sufficient.
Typically we think of 18 year old college students who, although legally may be an adult, are still quite dependent on their parents to provide a home base, and financial and emotional support. But it is possible (although atypical) for an 18 year old to be totally independent, for example as a college student or as a military service member.
For example, I grew up in a children's home; and upon high school graduation at age 17,
I was literally dismissed from the Home. I had already secured an excellent job (at Black Dot, Crystal Lake, IL, which still exists) and rented a room without kitchen privileges, in a stranger's home in town, in Woodstock, IL.
I was legally emancipated from state guardianship by court order. At age 18, I was legally an adult and legally independent of adult supervision and financial assistance.
I subsequently provided my own ingenuity and means to finance and complete my college education, earning my BS degree in just 4 calendar years following my high school graduation.
I accomplished this with no financial help, or any support of any kind, from my parents, or from any family member, or from the children's home, or from the associated church of the children's home, or from the private agency which had placed me in the Home.
Needless to say, I was highly motivated to achieve my college education. But of course not all children from the same Home were similarly motivated. Why is that? Why was I?
There is not a positive correlation of intelligence with motivation.
In summary, the definition of an adult and what constitutes adulthood is elusive. The definition of adult is nuanced; but generally for purposes herein, an adult is defined as independent of supervision and financial support from parents, surrogate parents or other, regardless of age.
Adult Education in Ancient Greece
It may have varied among the city-states, but in ancient Greece generally one was considered an adult at age 18. This meant that a male, who owned property, was expected be a well-informed citizen, and participate in the political assembly and in
the military.
The best path to achievement in ancient Greece was advancement up a successful military career ladder, which was highly correlated with commendable rhetorical and political skills. The law and architecture were other respectable professions for land-owning men.
Adult education in Greece dates back to the time of Homer. Panhellenic festivals were the earliest forms of adult education in Greece. They included the Olympic, Pythian, Nemean and Isthmian games, in honor of Zeus, Apollo and Poseidon, and were held every 4 years at the Olympiad. In addition to the (male only) athletic competitions, music, drama, poetry and visual arts contests were held. 6
Public contests of rhetorical skills included poetry recitations. Today, ekphrastic poetry means poetry which is inspired by a work of art. It is from the Greek word ekphrasis which means "to speak out" or "to speak fully." It was a literary and rhetorical educational technique and was exhibited by contestants' recitation of memorized poems.
Plato believed that learning was "inside" people and that learning was a process of
anamnesis or the recollection of what our soul already knows. Plato's mentor, Socrates, famously referred to himself as a midwife (the maieutic method), regarding teaching by question and answer as a means of eliciting or bringing forth endogenous ideas.
Euclid's The Elements (c. 300 BCE) was used for about 2,000 years in colleges as the standard textbook for teaching the application of logic to geometry. By the 20th century it was dropped from the college curriculum as a book that (previously) all educated persons were expected to have read.
Abraham Lincoln studied Euclid's The Elements and in introspection said to himself: "You never can make a lawyer if you do not understand what "demonstrate" means; and I left my situation in Springfield, went home to my father's house, and stayed there till I could give any proposition in the six books of Euclid at sight".
Other examples of our intellectual ancestry who, considering it foundational, studied Euclid's The Elements include: Thomas Jefferson, George Washington, Isaac Newton, Albert Einstein, Johannes Kepler, Nicholas Copernicus and Galileo Galilei, and many others including such philosophers as Immanuel Kant, Rene Descartes, and John Locke.
Ancient Curricula: The Trivium and the Quadrivium
The trivium (grammar, logic and rhetoric) and the quadrivium (arithmetic, astronomy, geometry and music/harmonics) as educational curricula originated from ancient Greece; although it was the Roman Boethius (480–524 AD) who first used the term quadrivium later in his De Arithmetica c 500. The trivium and the quadrivium comprised liberal arts education in Western society through the Medieval Ages.
M.S. Knowles and Andragogy
Knowles' andragogy theory is based on an overarching assumption that adults are more self-aware, inner directed and self-motivated than children are. These assumptions have been questioned and challenged.
Knowles developed his theory, which is a set of 5 assumptions, from which he derived his hypothesis that adults learn uniquely differently from children.
M.S. Knowles' 5 Assumptions of Adult Learners
I have listed these in the order of the likelihood of being true, with comments, based on my observations:
Self-concept: Adults become more self-directed as they mature and less concerned about "what other people think" about them.
Learner experience: Adults bring a wealth of lived experience to their learning process.
Motivation to learn: Adults increasingly rely on internal motivation, rather than external pressures, to learn.
Readiness to learn: Adults want to learn things that help them accomplish relevant tasks.
Orientation to learning: Adult learners want to solve problems.
Not-So-Positive Characteristics of Adult Learners
Notably the aforementioned 5 characteristics of Knowles' theory are positive or value-neutral characteristics of adult learners. But frequently there are some "not-so-positive" characteristics of adult learners. To be intellectually honest, we must consider some:
Adults can be "set in their ways" with long-established default practices of thinking or believing; and not willing to consider, or even hear, a new and/or opposing viewpoint.
Adults can become increasingly risk adverse, intolerant of cognitive dissonance, intolerant of feeling uncomfortable and unwilling to "step outside of their comfort zones" to learn something entirely new to them.
If an adult's educational endeavor is not to be evaluated according to any standards, or judged, or doesn't even have to be completed, adults may give up more quickly than children. They may employ low standards and expectations for themselves. They may be slack and lazy.
Adults, particularly those necessarily trying to get their careers established, are accustomed to their "silos of learning" and may exhibit "silo mentality," not willing to consider any intellectual or educational endeavor unless it directly benefits or relates to their career; and frequently will not consider any interdisciplinary collaboration or articulation.
Adults may become increasingly cynical as they age, having lost the guileless, spontaneous wonder and curiosity of most children.
Adults may distrust teachers due to bad childhood experiences.
Most adults have suffered more of the "slings and arrows" of life (as compared to children), which may result in decreased confidence in their abilities. On the other hand, such experiences have made some adults stronger, more resilient, and more determined.
Lake of motivation, intellectual laziness, fear of appearing ignorant
Examples of Characteristics of Mature Adult Learners:
Increasingly as adults age, they "don't do" meaningless rote learning. But some rote learning and memorization should be encouraged as mental exercise to aid in sustaining cognitive acuity.
Adults tend not to appreciate drills, pop quizzes or examinations. Although adults should not lose sight of intellectual, scholarly, professional or artistic standards.
Adults don't tolerated being put on the spot or publicly embarrassed by a teacher, such as the way a teacher can get away with, in teaching dependent college students. (see 1973 movie: The Paper Chase)
Adults don't do well with simply being the passive recipients of transmitted knowledge or skills.
Adults tend to want to apply or relate new learning or skills to their own prior lived experiences(s).
As compared to children, when learning, adults have already made many mistakes from which they can learn.
Mature adults tend not to appreciate someone wasting their time. For example, adults might tend to be disappointed when upon showing up for a class, not only are the other participants unprepared (haven't done the reading, etc.) but the instructor is also totally unprepared.
Adults tend to like books, paper and pencil, as opposed to studying online via computer--especially when solving math equations.
Older adults prefer "handouts" as opposed to looking at the same material online.
Ideal Characteristics of Self-Directed Lifelong Scholars:
Will advocate for ongoing, open, transparent scholarship, even if it makes ones own research obsolete or incomplete.
Respect for the historical scholarly work that has come before him/her
Does not seek to hide, diminish, redact or throw away prior scholarship; but endeavors to add to it, and otherwise accepts it for what it was in its time and cultural context.
Committed to reading from different, including opposing scholarly viewpoints.
Criticisms of Knowles' Theory of Andragogy
Limited empirical research, measurements, methodology, or formal testing to support his theory of andragogy
Not all adults are self-directed
Not all adults are motivated
Some adults are intellectually lazy
Not all adults learn from prior life experiences; some are unable to
Knowles said adults learn to solve a problem; but some adults learn strictly for fun.
The problems that adult learners want to solve may typically be their own problems, not solutions that might benefit society.
Other Terms Related to Andragogy and Pedagogy:
Heutagogy:
Hase and Kenyon coined the term heutagogy in 2000. Per Hase and Kenyon, heutagogy is not a departure from andragogy, but rather is an extension that incorporates self-directed learning. It is a concept defined by Hase and Kenyon in a study of self=determined learning (2000). 8
Heutagogy is related to the Greek word for self--heuriskin which means: to discover. Heutagogy, as an adult educational theory, refers to self-determined, self-directed, non-linear, autonomous learning, which connects to the adult learner's lived experience.
Of this definition, I would emphasize self-directedness. An adult's learning may be self-determined; but if it is to be effective, it must also be self-directed. In other words, heutagogy refers to an adult determining his own learning/educational needs--and also executing his chosen educational plan; as often with heutagogical learning comes cognitive dissonance and subsequent change in mental models of thinking.
"People only change in response to a very clear need. This usually involves distress such as confusion, dissonance or fear, or a more positive motive such as intense desire. The satiated and the comfortable are less likely to make a behaviorable change no matter what others may desire." 9
Heutagogy as a Distance Learning Theory
Since Knowles developed his theory of andragogy; and Hase & Kenyon coined the word heutagogy and developed the learning theory of heutagogy, innovations in communications technology have expanded such that the instant global reach of internet access is becoming increasingly ubiquitous .
The most notable application of widely accessible internet access to adult education has been distance learning. Heutagogical learning theory has been relevant to; and used to support distance learning theory, and to develop distance learning curricula.
Ajay Kumar Attri, "Significance of Heutagogy in Distance Education," Scholarly Research Journal for Interdisciplinary Studies ; SRJS/Bimonthy, Sept-Oct, 2013, Vol. II/VIII (458-464) 10
file:///C:/Users/bph79/Downloads/146744788545.%20ONLINE%20Dr_%20Ajay%20Kumar%20Attri.pdf
Autodidacticism
Autodidacticism Is self-education, which is the practice of educating oneself without the guidance of teachers or tutors. I identify with being an autodidact, by necessity throughout my life. But also, even though I achieved a Masters' degree level of education--with degrees from 3 different private, "excellent" schools, I don't believe I learned much of anything taught by instructors, while in college.
Other Considerations: Educational Methods Across Cultures
In considering the implications of andragogy vs. pedagogy, it is helpful to consider that educational systems vary across eras and cultures. Recall the "Socratic method" which has been criticized as repeatedly questioning a student into resigned embarrassment of his ignorance of the subject. (see 1973 movie The Paper Chase)
The Socratic method is a dialectical, which is "a method of philosophical argumentation that uses reasoned discourse to reach the truth." AI
Other criticisms of the Socratic method are described by:
CM Ford "The Socratic Method in the 21st Century," (2008) The Center for Teaching Excellence, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY, 2008.
Kerr, Orin S, "The Decline of the Socratic Method at Harvard," (1999); Nebraska Law Review.
This reminds me of a very important lesson I've learned: Not every question is worthy. Not every question asked of me is worthy of my consideration, much less my reply. This applies to any question, by any person, in any circumstances or context.
The Oxford Tutorial Method
"What an Oxford tutor does is to get a little group of students together
and smoke at them. Men who have been systematically smoked at for
four years turn into ripe scholars. . . A well-smoked man speaks and writes
English with a grace that can be acquired in no other way."
Stephen Leacock, My Discovery of England (1921)
Perhaps the most notable and certainly the most longstanding example is the Oxford-Cambridge Universities' (Oxbridge) method called "the tutorial," especially as compared to secondary educational methods in the US
The tutorial method is described as a tutor having 1 to no more than 3 students per class session. (A tutor is directly equivalent to a US professor), The class typically meets for one hour per week in the tutor's office, with emphasis on the students' "reading out" their assigned essay for critical questioning and discussion. There are 8 weeks to an Oxford term; and there are 3 terms in a school year, named: Michaelmas, Hillary and Trinity terms.
The tutorial has been the educational method at Oxford and Cambridge Universities since they were established--1096 and 1209 respectively .
The history of the Oxford tutorial can said to have derived from as far back as the Middle Ages (5th to 15 century). In Cobban's "English university life in the Middle Ages," he refers to the Oxford tutorial's "embryonic form" ....where the tutors were known as "informatores." Â (Cobban, A.B. 1999, London: UCL Press)
See also "Romes Secret Angels" Taste of History (Aug 1, 2022)
The tutorial method intrinsically derives from the Western liberal arts tradition because it emphasizes the development of the lifelong learning skill of critical thinking, by utilizing the Socratic method in small group settings for critical analysis and discussion of students' essays "read out," and because it expects active (not passive) learning, and because of tutors who guide their students in self-directed education.
Cardinal Newman, who was educated at Oxford, has famously said:
"The process of training, by which the intellect. . . is disciplined for its own
sake, for the perception of its own proper object, and for its own highest
culture, is called Liberal Education. . . And to set forth the right standard,
and to train according to it, and to help forward all students towards it
according to their various capacities, this I conceive to be the business
of a University." 10
And further, Cardinal Newman believed:
"this process creates the gentleman, with a cultivated intellect, a delicate
taste, a candid, equitable, dispassionate mind, a noble and courteous
bearing on the conduct of life.--these are the connatural qualities of a
large knowledge; they are the objects of a University.
Thus through Liberal Education a habit of mind is formed which lasts
through life, of which the attributes are freedom, equitableness,
calmness, moderation, and wisdom. . . [what] I have ventured to call
a philosophical habit." 11
Cardinal Newman further commented that a University training. . . "aims at raising the intellectual tone of society, at cultivating the public mind, at purifying the national taste, at supplying true principles to popular enthusiasm and fixed aims to popular aspiration, at giving enlargement and sobriety to the ideas of the age. . ."
Cardinal Newman adamantly resisted the notion that education should be focused to "some particular and narrow end," which is measured according to its utility in the
"Knowledge Economy" or marketplace.
Comparison of the UK Tutorial Method with US University Education
In comparing secondary educational methods of the US with the tutorial method of the UK; it has historically been generally agreed that it is the best method to teach and learn critical thinking skills.
The biggest advantage of the tutorial method is that neither students nor tutors "can hide" their unpreparedness. Similarly, a tutor class session is not conducive to inauthentic responses from the student, or grandstanding by the tutor or student.
.
However, the Oxbridge tutorial method has been under economic, social and academic pressure for several decades, because the biggest disadvantage of the tutorial method is the cost (see Palfreyman, David, ed, The Oxford Tutorial. . . )
Consider the net revenue of one UK tutor's salary who teaches only 1 to 3 students per one hour class session per week, as compared to a US professor, during the same period of one hour, teaching an auditorium full of 100 students; at Harvard each paying $86,000.00 annually for tuition and other associated expenses. (2024-2025)
The US would never adopt the tutorial method of the UK. And there has been much written analysis as to how Oxford University can financially continue the tutorial method, without modification, given its high tutor labor output per revenue inflow. (see Palfreyman, The Economics of Higher Education..." Oxford: OxCHEPS (2004); and Barr, N., The Welfare State as Piggy Bank:..., Oxford: Oxford University Press, (2001)
The US has different educational values and financial expectations than the UK. Recall my earlier comments about the intrinsic value of learning for its own sake, as compared to preparing a student to contribute (only) to the economy. In the US, a college degree has become a commodity; but true education is not a commodity.
In Summary:
This essay is to say that as regards my mission and vision for The School of Athens, as well as my own intellectual development, I am aware of and understand the theories of andragogy and heutagogy; and I appreciate the distinction from pedagogy.
Although I am not sure that we need yet another theory of education; and I am more interested in thinking about the philosophy of education, I will continue to review the literature and monitor for updates on andragogy and heutagogy.
Although not the primary mission of The School of Athens, I will continue to consider how The School of Athens might further contribute to the insights and understanding of andragogy and heutagogy; including possibly doing research and /or theorizing of our own.
This essay is meant to be an introduction to andragogy and an overview of the philosophy of education. Of several topics mentioned herein, such as: the tutorial method or the various philosophers of education and their writings, more in-depth reading, research and writing could be continued and expanded upon,
This essay may be continued, revised, expanded, redacted and/or modified according to (my) evolved thinking, as may be likely according to new information and /or insights.
Footnotes:
1 "Mensa Foundation Study of Unmet Needs Among Highly Intelligent Individuals: A Brief Report." Administered by the Center for Gifted Education of William & Mary School of Education, 14 July 2024.
1 Mensa Foundation; The Brief Report:
2 Knowles, M.S., "The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andragogy vs. Pedagogy,"Â Â New York Association Press (1970)
3 Huessy, Raymond translator 1992, Andragogy 1925, Richard Feringer's Notes on Rosenstock-Huessy's Works." Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy Fund.
4 Leonig, Svein, "Eugen Rosenstock-Hussey and andragogy"
5 Fisher, James C., & Podeschi, Roger L., "From Lindaman to Knowles: A Change in Vision,"
International Journal of Lifelong Education, Vol 8, No. 4 (Oct-Dec) 1989, 345-353
6 Mallam, Sally; "Greece: The Panhellenic Games." The Human Journey; Institute for the Study of Human Knowledge.
7 Loeng, Svein, "Alexander Kapp, the First User of the Andragogy Concept" InternatIonal Journal of lIfelong educatIon, 2017
Vol. 36, no. 6, 629–643
file:///C:/Users/bph79/Downloads/AlexanderKapp-thefirstknownuseroftheandragogyconcept.pdf
8 Hase, Stewart (2016) "Self-determined Learning (heutagogy): Where Have We Come Since 2000?"
file:///C:/Users/bph79/Downloads/Self_determined_Learning_heutagogy_Where.pdf
8 Hase, S., and Kenyon, C. "From Andragogy to Heutagogy." Southern Cross University, Australia (2000)
9 Hase and Kenyon, 2007, "Heutagogy, A Child of Complexity Theory."
file:///C:/Users/bph79/Downloads/HeutagogyandComplexityTheory.pdf
10 Ajay Kumar Attri, "Significance of Heutagogy in Distance Education," Scholarly Research Journal for Interdisciplinary Studies ; SRJS/Bimonthy, Sept-Oct, 2013, Vol. II/VIII (458-464) 10
file:///C:/Users/bph79/Downloads/146744788545.%20ONLINE%20Dr_%20Ajay%20Kumar%20Attri.pdf
11 Cardinal Newman, John Henry, The Idea of a University, (1852) Discourse V
Literature:
Attri, Ajay Kumar, Significance of Heutagogy in Distance Education," Scholarly Research Journal for Interdisciplinary Studies ; SRJS/Bimonthy, Sept-Oct, 2013, Vol. II/VIII (458-464)
file:///C:/Users/bph79/Downloads/146744788545.%20ONLINE%20Dr_%20Ajay%20Kumar%20Attri.pdf
Austin, Libby, "Heutagogy and Its Application to Distance Learning"
Beck, Robert J., "Towards a Pedagogy of the Oxford Tutorial," Lawrence University,
UC Irvine (2007)
Brinton, Clarence Crane, "The Tutorial Method is no Panacea for Educational Evils,"
"The Harvard Crimson," Harvard University, 1925.
Conor, Peter, "The Socratic Method: Fostering Critical Thinking," Colorado State University
Dillon, Ariel, "Education in Plato's Republic," Markkula Center for Applied Ethics, Santa Clara University, (26 May 2004)
Fisher, James C., & Podeschi, Roger L., "From Lindaman to Knowles: A Change in Vision,"
International Journal of Lifelong Education, Vol 8, No. 4 (Oct-Dec) 1989, 345-353
Hase, S., and Kenyon, C. "From Andragogy to Heutagogy." Southern Cross University, Australia (2000)
Hase and Kenyon, 2007, "Heutagogy, A Child of Complexity Theory."
file:///C:/Users/bph79/Downloads/HeutagogyandComplexityTheory.pdf
Hase, Stewart (2016) "Self-determined Learning (heutagogy): Where Have We Come Since 2000?"
file:///C:/Users/bph79/Downloads/Self_determined_Learning_heutagogy_Where.pdf
Huessy, Raymond translator 1992, Andragogy 1925, Richard Feringer's Notes on Rosenstock-Huessy's Works." Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy Fund.
Ker, Ian; "Newman on Education," The Center for the Study of Catholic Higher Education, 2008
Knowles, M.S., "Andragogy: Adult Learning Theory in Perspective." 1978
(Knowles had a MA and Ph.D from University of Chicago. When he published this paper, he was professor of adult and community college education at NC State University, Raleigh. )
Knowles, M.S., The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andragogy vs. Pedagogy,
New York Association Press (1970)
Knowles, M.S., The Adult Learner; a Neglected Species, 1973. Revised: 1978
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED084368.pdf (full book).
Knowles, M.S.. "The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to Andragogy. "Adult Leadership (350-352, 386), 1968. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall/Cambridge.
Part 5, starting after page 213.
Knowles, MS., "119 Andragogy not Pedagogy," 350-352 and 386; Adult Leadership 1968.
Starting at page 226 in this reference:
Knowles, MS., "120 How My Ideas Evolved and Changed" The Making of an Adult Educator, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass (1989), pg 79-85.
Starting at page 234 in this reference:
Loeng, Svein, "Alexander Kapp, the First User of the Andragogy Concept" InternatIonal Journal of lIfelong educatIon, 2017
Vol. 36, no. 6, 629–643
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The Paper Chase, 1973 movie. In this movie, Dr. Kingsfield, portrayed by John Houseman depicts an extreme version of the Socratic Method.
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